Ethical Perspectives

Ethical perspectives are different approaches or frameworks used to analyze and evaluate moral dilemmas and ethical questions. These perspectives help guide decision-making by providing different lenses through which one can assess right and wrong, good and bad, and justice and fairness. Here are some significant ethical perspectives:

1. Deontological Ethics (Duty-based Ethics)

• Focus: This perspective emphasizes the inherent morality of actions themselves, rather than the consequences. It argues that individuals have a duty or obligation to follow ethical rules, regardless of the outcomes.
• Main Principle: Actions are morally right if they follow certain principles or rules, such as truth-telling or keeping promises, regardless of the consequences.
• Philosopher: Immanuel Kant is a well-known proponent, with his “Categorical Imperative” suggesting that one should act only according to principles that can be universally applied.
• Example: Telling the truth, even if it might lead to harm, because honesty is an inherent moral duty.

2. Consequentialism (Outcome-based Ethics)

• Focus: Consequentialism evaluates the morality of actions based on their outcomes or results. The right action is the one that leads to the best consequences.
• Main Principle: The moral worth of an action is determined by its results. The aim is to maximize overall good or minimize harm.
• Theory: Utilitarianism, proposed by philosophers like Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill, is a form of consequentialism that suggests actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
• Example: A physician might choose to allocate limited medical resources (such as ventilators) to patients who have the highest chance of recovery, as this decision maximizes the overall good.

3. Virtue Ethics

• Focus: This perspective emphasizes the character and virtues of the moral agent (the person making the decision) rather than focusing solely on actions or consequences. It asks: “What kind of person should I be?”
• Main Principle: The goal is to cultivate virtues such as courage, honesty, compassion, and wisdom, and to strive to live a flourishing life.
• Philosopher: Aristotle, who proposed that living a virtuous life leads to eudaimonia (human flourishing or well-being).
• Example: Instead of focusing on specific rules or outcomes, a virtuous person would act with kindness and courage, guided by their character and the context of the situation.

4. Relativism

• Focus: Relativism suggests that ethical principles are not absolute but are instead shaped by culture, society, or personal perspectives. What is considered right or wrong can vary depending on cultural norms or individual beliefs.
• Main Principle: There is no objective or universal standard for morality, as moral truths are relative to individual or cultural perspectives.
• Theory: Cultural relativism argues that ethical practices should be understood in the context of each culture’s traditions and values.
• Example: In one culture, it may be considered morally acceptable to engage in certain practices that another culture views as unethical, like arranged marriages or dietary restrictions.

5. Care Ethics

• Focus: Care ethics emphasizes the importance of relationships, compassion, and empathy in ethical decision-making. It focuses on caring for others, particularly in contexts involving vulnerability, dependence, and interdependence.
• Main Principle: Ethical decisions should prioritize care and relationships, focusing on nurturing and responding to the needs of others, especially in contexts where individuals are dependent on each other (e.g., parent-child relationships, healthcare).
• Philosopher: Carol Gilligan, who proposed this perspective as a response to traditional ethical theories that she felt emphasized abstract principles over personal relationships.
• Example: A healthcare provider may prioritize the emotional and physical needs of a patient, considering the patient’s personal history and emotional state when deciding on treatment.

6. Contractualism (Social Contract Theory)

• Focus: This ethical perspective emphasizes the idea that moral rules and principles arise from an implicit or explicit social agreement among individuals in a society. The moral norms that govern behavior are based on mutual agreement or contract.
• Main Principle: Ethical principles are those that rational individuals would agree to under conditions of equality and fairness, typically as part of forming a stable and just society.
• Philosopher: Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, and Jean-Jacques Rousseau are some classical theorists who contributed to social contract theory. Contemporary philosophers like T.M. Scanlon have expanded on the idea.
• Example: A society may agree to uphold laws that protect individual rights, as this agreement ensures the well-being and fairness of all its members.

7. Ethical Egoism

• Focus: Ethical egoism is the perspective that individuals should act in their own self-interest, and that actions are morally right if they benefit the individual performing them.
• Main Principle: People should always act in ways that maximize their own well-being and happiness, as long as they don’t harm others.
• Philosopher: Ayn Rand, who argued for rational self-interest as a foundation for ethical behavior in her philosophy of Objectivism.
• Example: A person might prioritize their career advancement over helping others if doing so contributes to their personal success.

8. Divine Command Theory

• Focus: Divine command theory asserts that moral rightness and wrongness are determined by the will or commands of a divine being (such as God). What is morally right is what God commands.
• Main Principle: Morality is dependent on religious or divine laws, and individuals should act in accordance with these divine directives.
• Influence: Found in many religious traditions, particularly in monotheistic religions like Christianity, Islam, and Judaism.
• Example: In some religious traditions, ethical behavior is guided by religious texts, and actions like charity, prayer, and honesty are moral duties because they are divinely mandated.

9. Pragmatic Ethics

• Focus: Pragmatic ethics is centered around finding practical solutions to moral problems, considering the context, consequences, and real-world practicality. It values the outcomes of actions and flexibility in decision-making.
• Main Principle: Ethical decisions should be made based on practical considerations and real-life consequences, not strict adherence to abstract rules.
• Influence: This perspective is influenced by the philosophical tradition of pragmatism, particularly figures like John Dewey and William James.
• Example: In a business setting, a decision might be made based on balancing long-term success with ethical responsibility, considering both moral values and practical outcomes.

These ethical perspectives provide a variety of frameworks to approach moral issues, each with its strengths and weaknesses depending on the context. Some emphasize the character of the individual, others focus on the consequences of actions, while others highlight the importance of duty or social agreements. Understanding these perspectives can help navigate complex moral dilemmas and provide insight into diverse ethical viewpoints.

Ethical relativism is the idea that moral principles and judgments are not absolute or universal, but are instead shaped by cultural, societal, or individual perspectives. According to ethical relativism, what is considered right or wrong can vary from culture to culture or person to person, and there is no single, objective standard for morality that applies to everyone universally.

Features of Ethical Relativism:

1. Cultural Relativism:
   A major branch of ethical relativism, cultural relativism asserts that moral codes and ethical standards are created within each culture. What is considered morally right in one culture might be wrong in another, and vice versa. There is no “universal” morality because each culture has its own set of beliefs and practices about what is right and wrong.
   • Example: In some cultures, polygamy is accepted and even encouraged, while in other cultures, monogamy is considered the ethical norm. According to cultural relativism, neither practice can be judged as universally right or wrong; they are both valid within their respective cultures.
2. Individual Relativism (Subjectivism):
   Individual relativism, also known as moral subjectivism, suggests that moral judgments are based on individual preferences or feelings. Each person creates their own moral framework based on personal experiences, beliefs, or emotions. Therefore, what is right or wrong is determined by the individual’s subjective perspective, and no one’s moral viewpoint is objectively better or worse than another’s.
   • Example: One person may believe that euthanasia is morally acceptable, while another may oppose it on moral grounds. Ethical subjectivism would claim that both views are equally valid for the individuals holding them.

Philosophies of Ethical Relativism:

1. Moral Diversity:
   Ethical relativism acknowledges the vast differences in moral beliefs across cultures and individuals. What is moral in one context may not be considered moral in another. This diversity is not seen as a problem but rather as a natural and inevitable outcome of human society.
2. Rejection of Universal Morality:
   Relativists argue against the idea of a universal set of moral rules that always apply to all people. Instead, they believe that morality is shaped by the circumstances, culture, and context in which it arises.
3. Tolerance and Understanding:
   Ethical relativism encourage tolerance for cultural differences, as it posits that no single culture’s ethics should be viewed as superior to another’s. It promotes understanding that moral values are dependent on context.

Criticisms of Ethical Relativism:

1. Moral Inconsistency:
   Critics argue that if moral values are entirely relative, this can lead to contradictions. For example, if one culture practices something considered immoral by another (e.g., human rights abuses), ethical relativism would make it difficult to criticize the first culture’s actions. This can potentially justify harmful practices just because they are culturally accepted.
2. Moral Progress:
   Some critics point out that ethical relativism makes it hard to argue for moral progress or improvement. If morality is entirely relative, then how can we claim that historical changes, such as the abolition of slavery or the advancement of women’s rights, represent moral progress? Relativism doesn’t provide a framework for evaluating changes in moral beliefs as either progress or decline.
3. Cultural Imperialism:
   While relativism promotes cultural tolerance, critics argue that it can also lead to a form of cultural relativism that overlooks abuses or injustices that may occur within certain cultural norms. For example, if harmful practices like gender inequality or child labor are normalized within a culture, relativism may inadvertently prevent intervention or criticism from other societies.

Supporters of ethical relativism argue that moral judgments should be made within their cultural and historical contexts. They emphasize the importance of understanding and respecting different cultural practices and beliefs without imposing external standards. Ethical relativism, they claim, encourages respect for diversity and avoids ethnocentrism (the belief that one’s own culture is superior to others).

Ethical relativism asserts that there are no absolute moral truths, and that right and wrong are dependent on cultural norms or individual perspectives. While it promotes tolerance and an appreciation of diversity, it also faces criticism for potentially justifying harmful practices and failing to allow for moral progress.

Ethical objectivism is the view that certain moral principles are universally valid and objectively true, regardless of individual beliefs, cultural norms, or societal practices. According to ethical objectivism, there are moral facts that hold true for all people at all times, and these principles can be discovered or understood through reason, experience, or moral intuition. In other words, some actions are objectively right or wrong, irrespective of people’s feelings or cultural traditions.

Aspects of Ethical Objectivism:

1. Universal Moral Principles: Ethical objectivism asserts that there are moral standards that apply to all individuals, regardless of their cultural, social, or personal differences. These standards are seen as objective, meaning they are not contingent on human opinion or cultural context.
   • Example: The principle that “it is wrong to kill innocent people” would be considered universally valid under ethical objectivism, regardless of what any culture or individual believes.
2. Independence from Individual or Cultural Beliefs: Objectivist ethics holds that moral truths are independent of what people think or believe. Just because a culture or individual believes something is morally right or wrong does not make it so. The moral truth exists outside of human preferences or beliefs.
   • Example: If a society believes that slavery is acceptable, ethical objectivism would still hold that slavery is objectively wrong, as it violates universal moral principles like human dignity and equality.
3. Moral Facts and Reason: Ethical objectivism maintains that moral truths can be discovered through reason or through understanding human nature, and are not simply based on subjective feelings or arbitrary rules. Moral reasoning can lead us to recognize what is objectively right or wrong.
   • Example: In discussions about justice, ethical objectivism would argue that we can reason that fairness and equality are moral imperatives, which apply universally, regardless of whether individuals or societies agree on them.
4. Moral Accountability: Since moral principles are objective and universally applicable, individuals and societies are morally accountable for their actions. This means that people can be judged based on whether they follow these objective moral standards, and societies can be criticized for violating them.
   • Example: If a government engages in systematic oppression, ethical objectivism would argue that it is morally wrong, and the leaders of that government are accountable for violating universal moral rights.

Theories Associated with Ethical Objectivism:

1. Natural Law Theory: Natural law theory is an ethical framework that argues that moral principles are derived from human nature and can be discovered through reason. According to this view, there are objective moral truths built into the very fabric of the world, accessible through human reasoning.
   • Example: Humans can discern the moral order of the universe through their natural reason and that actions aligning with this natural law are morally right.
2. Moral Realism: Moral realism is a view within ethical objectivism that asserts that moral facts exist independently of human thought and perception. These facts are true regardless of whether anyone believes them to be true.
   • Example: A moral realist would argue that the statement “torture is wrong” is objectively true, and this truth exists independently of human opinions or cultural contexts.
3. Kantian Ethics (Deontology): Immanuel Kant’s ethical theory is another form of ethical objectivism. He argued that there are universal moral laws, such as the Categorical Imperative, which apply to all rational beings. According to Kant, some actions are morally required, while others are forbidden, and these moral obligations exist independently of individual desires or social conventions.
   • Example: Kant’s principle that people should be treated as ends in themselves, not merely as means to an end, is considered an objective moral rule that applies to all rational beings.

Advantages of Ethical Objectivism:

1. Moral Consistency:
   Ethical objectivism provides a consistent framework for evaluating moral questions, as there are fixed principles that apply universally. This consistency helps in providing clear moral guidance, especially in situations where cultural or individual differences might conflict.
2. Accountability:
   Since objective moral principles exist, individuals and societies can be held accountable for their actions. Ethical objectivism allows for the critique of actions such as human rights violations, exploitation, or injustices, regardless of whether they are accepted in particular cultures or societies.
3. Moral Progress:
   Ethical objectivism supports the idea of moral progress. If there are objective moral truths, societies can evolve toward greater moral understanding by recognizing and aligning with these truths, such as movements toward social justice, equality, and human rights.

Criticisms of Ethical Objectivism:

1. Cultural Diversity and Disagreement:
   Critics argue that ethical objectivism does not adequately account for the wide diversity of moral beliefs across cultures. People around the world hold different views on what is right and wrong, and ethical objectivism struggles to explain why these views would all be wrong if universal moral principles exist.
2. Moral Absolutism:
   Some critics argue that ethical objectivism can lead to moral absolutism, which is the idea that moral rules are rigid and inflexible. This might result in judgmental or authoritarian attitudes, as those who adhere to objective moral principles may feel justified in condemning others for their different beliefs or practices.
3. Difficulty in Identifying Objective Morality:
   Even proponents of ethical objectivism may disagree on what the objective moral principles are, leading to debates over which moral truths are truly universal. For example, different objectivism theories (like Kantian ethics, utilitarianism, or natural law) can provide conflicting answers to the same ethical dilemma, complicating the process of moral discovery.

Ethical objectivism argues that moral truths exist independently of human beliefs and that certain principles are universally valid for all people. These objective standards provide a basis for evaluating actions and holding individuals and societies accountable. While it offers consistency and the potential for moral progress, it also faces challenges related to cultural differences and the identification of universal moral principles.

In conclusion, ethical relativism is the belief that moral principles are shaped by cultural, social, or individual perspectives, meaning that what is considered right or wrong can vary across different societies or people. In contrast, ethical objectivism argues that there are universal, objective moral principles that apply to all people, regardless of culture or individual beliefs. While relativism suggests morality is subjective and context-dependent, objectivism holds that certain moral truths exist independently of personal or societal views.

Key Ethical Challenges Introduced by AI:

• Bias & Fairness: AI trained on biased data can reinforce inequality.

• Transparency: Many AI models are “black boxes”—difficult to understand or explain.

• Accountability: Who’s responsible when an AI makes a bad call? The developer? The doctor?

• Informed Consent: Patients often don’t know how AI is being used in their care.

• Privacy: AI needs lots of data—can we protect patient information?

Example Areas Where Bioethics & AI Intersect:

• Predictive healthcare models (e.g., predicting cancer risk)

• AI in diagnostics (e.g., radiology)

• Robot-assisted surgeries

• Mental health chatbots

• AI in genomics and personalized medicine

https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/research/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/lee_2025_ai_critical_thinking_survey.pdf